Water Tests

CCWI works with EPA protocols for citizen monitoring, and is in contact with the State of California Clean Water Team regarding data quality and quality assurance. This handbook is meant to assist beginning citizen monitors in the field. For a printed version, please contact the CCWI office at (707) 824-4370.

CCWI Citizen Monitoring Handbook

Table of Contents

I. Water Quality Parameters
Conductivity…………………………………
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)…………………..…
pH…………………………………………....
Temperature……………………………..…..
Turbidity…………………………………….
Stream Flow…………………………………
Nitrates………………………………………
Phosphates………………………………...
II. Quick Reference Charts…………….............
III. How to Perform Testing
Collecting samples………………………….
Whirl-Pak bags………………………….
Conductivity………………………………..
Dissolve Oxygen (DO)……………………..
pH…………………………………….....
Temperature………………………………..
Turbidity…………………………………....
Stream Flow…………………………….
Sources………………………………....................

I. Water Quality Parameters

Conductivity

WHAT: Conductivity is the ability of water to conduct an electrical current through dissolved ions in the water. It is measured in µmhos/cm, microsiemens per centimeter.

CAUSES:
Natural factors:
" Material of surrounding rocks
--Granite bedrock: decreases conductivity (granite does not ionize easily)
--Clay Soils: increases conductivity (ionizes when washed into the water)
" Evaporation: increases concentration of dissolved solids and salts, increasing conductivity.

Human factors that increase conductivity:
" Failing sewage or septic systems increase chloride, phosphate, and nitrate
" Agricultural runoff with high levels of dissolved salts

Human factors that decrease conductivity:
" Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar are not very conductive. (These compounds may get into the water through urban runoff)

CORRELATION:
" As temperature increases, conductivity increases.
" Nitrates and phosphates slightly increase conductivity
" As conductivity increases, DO decreases

LEVELS:
" Distilled water: 0.5 to 3.0 µmhos/cm,
" Drinkable water: 30 to 1500 µmhos/cm
" Irrigation supply water: less than 750 µmhos/cm
" Streams with good mixed fisheries: 150 to 500 µmhos/cm.
" The State Water Board objective: 100 to 1300 µmhos/cm, depending on the water body.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

WHAT: DO is the amount of oxygen dissolved in water. Most aquatic organisms need oxygen to survive and grow. Substances such as yard clippings, sewage, oil, and dead organic material use DO in the breakdown process.

CAUSES:
" Oxygen from air is dissolved in water at its surface, mostly through turbulence
" Plants produce oxygen when they photosynthesize
" Low DO results from increases in water temp, algae, human waste, and animal waste

CORRELATION:
" Temperature: As temperature increases, DO decreases.
" Altitude: Water holds less oxygen at higher altitudes.
" Salinity: As salinity increases, DO decreases.
" Mineral content: As the mineral content increases, dissolved oxygen decreases.

LEVELS:
" For most life to survive: DO must be above 3 mg/l.
" To support fish: DO should be above 5 to 8 mg/l (depending on region of CA)
" Salmon need more than 6 mg/l
" Average level is 10 mg/l (100% saturation) for 15°C.

EFFECTS of Low DO:
" Death of species
" Reduction in growth
" Failure of eggs/larvae to survive

pH

WHAT:
" pH comes from the French: "puissance d'Hydrogène" meaning strength of the hydrogen.
" pH measures how acidic or basic the water is.
" The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 (7= neutral, <7 = acidic, >7=basic)
CAUSES:
Natural factors:
" Surrounding tree types or stream bottom material
- Algae makes the water more basic, increasing pH
- Limestone (calcium carbonate) naturally raises the pH
" Decomposing organic matter and root respiration decreases the pH (carbon dioxide forms a weak acid in water)

Human factors:
" Acid rain (from autos or industries) reduces pH
" Acid mine drainage and sulfur fertilizers reduce pH 5
" Excess nutrients cause algae growth, increasing pH (see phosphates effects - eutrophication)

CORRELATIONS: Increasing temperature decreases pH

LEVELS:
" Most natural environments: between 4 and 9.
" Seawater: between 7.5 and 8.4.
" Freshwater: 6.5 and 8.5 to protect most organisms

EFFECTS:
" Most aquatic life only survive within a narrow pH range
" May alter other substances to higher toxicity.

Temperature

WHAT: Temperature is a measure of the average energy (kinetic) of water molecules, in Celsius or Fahrenheit. Temperature affects water chemistry and the functions of aquatic organisms.

CAUSES:
Natural
" Sunlight energy
" Velocity of stream
" Depth of water
" Inflow temperature
" Color and turbidity of water
(suspended sediment absorbs heat).

Human Factors
" Removal of vegetation
" Soil erosion
" Storm water runoff
" Alterations to stream flow
" Cooling water discharges from industries

LEVELS:
" Sockeye salmon
-Optimum temperature is 10°C for spawning
-Maximum for survival is 22°C.
" Water quality objective: To support salmon, water should be within 5°F of natural temperature

EFFECTS:
" Rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants
" Metabolic rates of organisms
" Sensitivity of organisms to toxic wastes, parasites, and diseases
" Timing of reproduction and migration of aquatic organisms
" pH, DO, and conductivity levels (see quick reference charts)

Turbidity

WHAT: Turbidity is a measure of the amount of suspended particles such as algae, sediment, or organic matter.

CAUSES:

Natural factors
-Algae and nutrient loading
-Sediment from erosion
-Rainy weather

Human Factors
-Nutrient loading (high algae)
-Changes in stream patterns
-Erosion (lack of vegetation)

CORRELATIONS:
" Turbidity increases as water velocity increases.
" Turbidity from organic particles: DO decreases. (Microbial breakdown requires DO.)

LEVELS:
" Recreation: 5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units)
" Drinking: 0-5 NTU
" General Aquatic Life: under 25 NTU
" Trout (salmonid) waters: under10 NTU.

EFFECTS: Overall, excess turbidity reduces light, which decreases plant life. Reduced plant life leads to fewer invertebrates and therefore a fish population decline. The specific effects vary depending on type of particles: sediment, organic matter, or algae.

Suspended sediment
" Interferes with the potable water treatment process
" May harbor pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoans
" Clogs fish gills and smothers fish eggs at high levels
" Impairs fish navigation

Organic matter
" Dissolved oxygen depletion
" Imparts color to the water when biodegrading
" May harbor pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoans

Algae:
" May produce toxins that are harmful to humans at high levels

Stream Flow

WHAT: Stream flow, or discharge, is the amount of water that moves past a fixed point during a given period of time. It is measured as cubic feet per second (ft3/sec). It is important because of its impact on water quality, living organisms, and habitats in the stream. Large, swiftly flowing rivers can receive pollution discharges and be little affected, whereas small streams have less capacity to dilute and degrade wastes.

CAUSES:
Natural Factors
" The amount and timing of rainfall or snowfall
" Watershed size and topography (the steepness, location and orientation of sloping areas)
" Geology and soil characteristics
" Shape and size of stream channel and adjacent floodplains
" Height of underground water and movement of groundwater
" Logs and other debris in the channel
" Suspended sediment in the water
" Vegetation: amount and type in the watershed
" Evaporation and evapotranspiration (water taken up by plants from the ground)

Human Factors
" Pumping of water into or out of the stream
" Impervious surfaces near the stream (roads, sidewalks, etc.)
" Wells or groundwater pumping
" Dams, culverts, or other structures
" Litter and debris which clog pipes and culverts

EFFECTS:
" Determines the kinds of organisms living in the stream (some need fast-flowing areas; others need quiet pools).
" Affects the amount of silt and sediment carried by the stream. Sediment in slow-flowing streams settles more quickly to the bottom than in fast moving streams.
" High stream flow increases dissolved oxygen (DO) levels
" Alters other parameters; important for understanding data.

Nitrates

WHAT:
" Nitrate is the form of nitrogen commonly found in soil and groundwater
" Nitrogen (N) cycles through the environment, moving from organic matter to ammonium (NH4+ ) to nitrite (NO2- ) to nitrate (NO3-) as it is broken down by bacteria. We measure the amount of nitrogen (N) in nitrate (NO3-).
" Most plants fix (use) nitrate, sometimes giving the water a low nitrate reading even if there is a large source of nitrogen to the water.

CAUSES:
" Naturally in the soil from decaying plants and animals
" Fertilizers: lawn, garden, crops, parks
" Sewage disposal systems (on-site septic systems and wastewater treatment plants)
" Livestock facilities (animal manure storage)
" Industrial discharges that contain corrosion inhibitors

LEVELS:
" Natural levels of nitrates in surface water are typically low (less than 1 mg/L)
" Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for drinking water is 45 mg/L for nitrates and 3.3 mg/L for nitrites
" Wastewater treatment plants runoff: up to 30 mg/L1

EFFECTS:
" Excess nitrates causes low levels of DO
" Excess nitrates may be toxic to warm-blooded animals (especially pregnant females and infants under 6 months) at concentration of 10 mg/L or higher.
" Eutrophication: (see phosphate effects)

Phosphates

WHAT:
" Phosphate (PO4 ) is the form of phosphorus present in soil and groundwater (Plants convert phosphate to phosphorus)
" Necessary for the growth of plants and animals
" Stimulates growth of plankton and aquatic plants, which provide food for larger organisms, including zooplankton, fish, and mammals.

Types of Phosphorous:
1. Ortho-produced by natural processes (ie. Sewage)
2. Poly-used in treating boiling water and in detergents (In water they change to Ortho)
3. Organic-produced in the break down of pesticides

CAUSES:
" Natural decomposition of rocks and minerals
" Partially treated and untreated sewage
" Runoff from agricultural sites
" Application of some lawn fertilizers (which is carried into surface water during storms)
" Laundering and commercial cleaning fluids
" Erosion and sedimentation
" Permitted industrial discharges

LEVELS:
Thresholds:
" Not enough = sparse growth of bottom food chain, so little fish production
" Just right = enough plankton and plant growth to provide ample food for fish.
" Too much = growth chokes waterways, decreases DO, and causes eutrophication.

USEPA recommendations for Total Phosphate:
" Streams: under 0.x mg/L
" Streams emptying into reservoirs: under 0.05 mg/L
" Reservoirs: under 0.025 mg/L

Toxicity:
" Not toxic to humans unless in extremely high concentrations
" Even such very low concentrations as 0.01 mg/L of phosphorus can have a dramatic impact on streams.

EFFECTS:
Eutrophication:
1. Excess of nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, and/or organic waste (usually caused by human activity and development)
2. Imbalance in the "production versus consumption" of living material (biomass) in an ecosystem
3. The system then reacts by producing more phytoplankton/vegetation than can be consumed by ecosystem
4. This overproduction can lead to a variety of problems: decreased oxygen waters (through decomposition), toxic algal blooms, decreased diversity, reduced food supply, and habitat destruction.
(Also see quick reference chart)

Note: You can make a difference today by making sure your laundry detergent and dishwashing detergent are clearly labeled "phosphate-free." Phosphate-free detergents are available at local specialty and natural foods markets.

II. Quick Reference Charts (coming soon)

III. How to Perform Testing

Collecting Grab Samples from the Stream

Use the same location each time. In general, sample away from the riverbank in the main current. Never sample stagnant water or backwater eddies. Collection sites should be located in relatively straight channel reaches where the flow is uniform. Collecting samples directly in a ripple or from ponded or sluggish water should be avoided. The outside curve of the stream is often a good place to sample, since the main current tends to hug this bank. In shallow stretches, carefully wade into the center current to collect the sample. A boat will be required for deep sites. Samples collected directly downstream from a bridge can be contaminated from the bridge structure or runoff from the road surface. If your goal is to find affects of structures and pollution, take an upstream and downstream sample at least 50 feet away from the disturbance, as well as one directly at the disturbance site.

For Whirl-pak® Bags

1. Label the bag with the stream name, site number, date, and time. Tear off the top of the bag along the perforation above the wire tab just prior to sampling . Avoid touching the inside of the bag. If you accidentally touch the inside of the bag, use another one.
2. Wading. Try to disturb as little bottom sediment as possible. In any case, be careful not to collect water that contains bottom sediment. Stand facing upstream. Collect the water sample infront of you. Boat. Carefully reach over the side and collect the water sample on the upstream side of the boat.
3. Hold the two white pull tabs in each hand and lower the bag into the water on your upstream side with the opening facing upstream. Open the bag midway between the surface and the bottom by pulling the white pull tabs. The bag should begin to fill with water. You may need to "scoop" water into the bag by drawing it through the water upstream and away from you. Fill the bag no more than 3/4 full.
4. Lift the bag out of the water. Pour out excess water. Pull on the wire tabs to close the bag. Continue holding the wire tabs and flip the bag over at least 4-5 times quickly to seal the bag. Don't try to squeeze the air out of the top of the bag. Fold the ends of the wire tabs together at the top of the bag, being careful not to puncture the bag. Twist them together, forming a loop.
5. Fill in the bag number and/or site number on the appropriate field data sheet. It is the only way the lab coordinator knows which bag goes with which site.
6. If samples are to be analyzed in a lab, place the sample in the cooler with ice or cold packs. Take all samples to the lab or to the CCWI office within 24 hours.

How to Measure Conductivity

1. Remove cap and press ON/OFF button.
2. Dip electrode in stream, making sure the sensor is fully covered.
3. Wait for reading to stabilize, and record. To freeze display, press HOLD. Pressing HOLD again will release the value.
4. Press ON/OFF to turn off tester. It will automatically turn
off after 8.5 minutes to conserve energy.

Trouble-shooting:
Low battery: indicator turns on, or reading display is faint.
Experiencing Drift: let the electrode fully dry.
Improve Performance: Clean electrode in alcohol rinse for 10-15
minutes.

Using a DO Meter

Remember, the probe is water proof, but the meter in the black box is not, so do not immerse it!
1. Once the meter is turned on the to the O2 setting, allow 20 minute equilibration before testing. Do not turn the meter off until all the samples are taken.
2. Place the probe in the stream below the surface, ideally ½ way down. Set the meter to measure dissolved oxygen. Keep the probe moving, at about 1 foot per second, to keep fresh water flowing over the membrane. However, do not splash, as this will introduce oxygen to the water. When the number stabilizes, record it on your data sheet.
3. Switch the meter to read temperature, and allow the temperature reading to stabilize. Record the temperature on the field data sheet as DO temperature.

Trouble-shooting:
Check the connection between the probe and the meter. Make sure that the probe is filled with electrolyte solution, that the membrane has no wrinkles, and that there are no bubbles trapped on the face of the membrane. You can do a field check of the meter's accuracy by calibrating it in saturated air according to the manufacturer's instructions inside the kit, however, CCWI will calibrate the meter before each field day.

How to Measure pH

1. Condition electrode by immersing it in tap water for 30 minutes. * DO NOT use de-ionized water-tap is best.
2. Remove cap from electrode and press ON/OFF button.
3. Dip electrode ½" to 1" into stream. Stir once and let reading stabilize.
4. Note the pH or press HOLD/CON button to freeze the reading. To release the reading, press HOLD/CON again.
5. Press ON/OFF to turn off the tester. It will automatically turn off after 8.5 minutes to conserve energy.
6. After use, store pH tester with a bit of tap-water dampened paper towel or sponge in the top of the cap.

Trouble-shooting: Error Messages:
ER1: Weak batteries.
ER2: Wrong or bad buffer value (calibration), or electrode is
failing.
OR: Over Range signal, or electrode is not in contact with
solution, or electrode is failing.

How to Measure Water Temperature

1. Place the thermometer or meter probe in the water at least 4 inches below the surface or halfway to the bottom if in a shallow stream. Allow enough time for the thermometer to reach a stable temperature (about 3 minutes). If using a meter, allow the temperature reading to stabilize at a constant temperature reading.
2. If possible, try to read the temperature with the thermometer bulb beneath the water surface. If it is not possible, quickly remove the thermometer and read the temperature.
3. Record the temperature on the field data sheet.

Measuring Turbidity

1. Use the turbidity standards provided with the meter to calibrate it. Make sure it is reading accurately in the range in which you will be working.
2. Shake the sample vigorously and wait until the bubbles have disappeared. You might want to tap the sides of the bottle gently to accelerate the process.
3. Use a lint-free cloth to wipe the outside of the tube into which the sample will be poured. Be sure not to handle the tube below the line where the light will pass when the tube is placed in the meter. *Do Not Scratch Tubes!*
4. Pour the sample water into the tube. Wipe off any drops on the outside of the tube.
5. Set the meter for the appropriate turbidity range. Place the tube in the meter and read the turbidity measurement directly from the meter display.
6. Record the result on the field or lab sheet.

How to Measure Stream Flow

Flow = ALC / T
A = Average cross-sectional area of the stream (stream width multiplied by average water depth).
L = Length of the stream reach measured (usually 20 ft.)
C = A coefficient or correction factor (0.8 for rocky-bottom streams or 0.9 for muddy-bottom streams). This allows you to correct for the fact that water at the surface travels faster than near the stream bottom due to resistance from gravel, cobble, etc.
T = Time, in seconds, for the float to travel the length of L

Recommended equipment
" Measuring tape
" Rope and 4 stakes or ground staples
" A timer (stopwatch or digital watch)
" 2-3 floats: an orange or other natural material that sinks at least halfway into the water, is visible from shore, and is expendable and non-polluting--not ping-pong balls or plastic jugs.
" Pencils, paper or printed data sheets (waterproof preferred)
" Waders (for higher flows)
" Calculator (for field calculations to help identify errors on-site)

Where to measure
Pick a 20-foot long section of the stream of representative flow, with the following characteristics.
" The section is straight and of uniform width
" The water moves uniformly and smoothly. Backflowing areas or split streams should be avoided when possible.
" The area should be free of scattered boulders, weeds and protruding obstructions, such as logs or bridge piers, that create turbulence.
" The section of the stream should be at least 6 inches deep, but shallow enough for you to safely wade across.

Normally, a good cross-section location is near the outlet of a pool where velocities don't vary drastically across the channel.
Procedures for determining cross-sectional area:

1. To measure the cross sectional area of a stream, place a stake at the wetted edge on each stream bank. Tie a level string line to both stakes running across the stream.
2. Use the tape measure to measure the width of the stream and record.
3. Have one person take the measuring rod to measure the depth of the water at regular intervals across the stream. Use the tape measure to establish these points. To achieve the most precision, take at least 4 depth measurements per cross-section. To determine the interval length, divide the total stream width by the number of measurements. A guideline is measure every 6 inches.
4. Continue to measure at regular intervals until you reach the edge of the water on the opposite side of the stream bank.
5. Add up the depths on the Stream Flow Data Sheet. Then divide this sum by the total number of depth measurements taken. Next multiply the width of the stream and the average depth. This is the cross sectional area for that section of the stream. Note: Leave the string line attached to the stakes; you will use this as a marker for the velocity measurement.
6. Repeat steps 1-5, 20 feet downstream from where the first cross section was measured. This is where the finishing line for your stream flow velocity trials will take place. Compute the cross sectional area for this section and record. Add the two cross sectional area figures together and divide by two to get an average cross sectional area. Record this information on the Stream Flow Data Sheet.

Procedures for velocity float trial
1. Measure the length of the stream where the velocity float trials are to be conducted and record this information. This distance should ideally be 20 feet, from starting line to finish line.
2. The team member at the starting line drops an orange a little before the line, and starts a stop watch as it passes the line. When the orange passes the finish line the watch is stopped, the orange retrieved, and the time recorded
3. Repeat this test three times moving from the left to the right side of the stream along the starting line. This will give you a more representative depiction of stream flow along that section of the stream. Record the results each time.
4. Add up the times for each of the velocity float trials and divide by the number of trials (3) to get an average velocity time. Record the results on the Stream Flow Data Sheet.
5. Use the Stream Flow Field Sheet to calculate surface velocity. Divide distance (20 feet) by average velocity time to get average surface velocity in feet per second. Next, multiply this result by the velocity correction factor. The velocity correction factor has been added to adjust for the fact that water velocity at the surface is faster than water velocity closer to the bottom of a stream.
6. Finally, calculate stream flow by multiplying average correction velocity by average cross sectional area. Your result will in CFS (cubic feet per second). Record this number.

After all that protocol, here's a poem (with special thanks to Rachel Peletz, CCWI's summer intern):
The Cycle of P (Phosphorous)

I put some P into the sea
the biomass did swell

But settling down soon overcame
and P went down toward Hell

From Purgatory soon released
it moved up to the land

To make a perfect rose for thee
to carry in thy hand

But roses wilt and die you know
then P falls on the ground

Gobbled up as ferric P
a nasty brown compound

The world is moral still you know
and Nature's wheels do grind

Put ferric P into the sea
and a rose someday you'll find

Sources:

*Unless otherwise documented, the information is from State Water Board fact sheets. Similar information may be found in the EPA's Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual at http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/

1 EPA Office of Water: Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual
2 Water on the Web http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/wow/under/parameters/conductivity.html
3 http://www.fivecreeks.org/monitor/do.html
4 Air & Water Quality, Inc. Maine's Water Experts http://www.awqinc.com/ph.html
5 SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry http://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htm
6 http://h2osparc.wq.ncsu.edu/river/salmon/ntu2.html
7 Michael J. Pidwirny, Ph.D., Department of Geography, Okanagan University College http://www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/physgeog/contents/9s.html
8 Wilkes University: Center for Environmental Quality, Environmental Engineering and Earth
Sciences http://www.water-research.net
9 Robert M. Garrels, http://www.geosc.psu.edu/~jrogie/jokes/phos.html

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